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ABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSUMMARYBACKGROUNDDOES
SUPER-SPEED
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HYPERBOLIC CREATION MODEL This paper describes an alternate understanding of the well-known red-shift frequencies using the HCM cosmogony. The HCM involves super-speed transit light which always arrives in the solar system at 186,000 miles per second. It is shown that the HCM not only satisfies observable data but is consistent with universe ages ranging from zero to 20 billion years or more.
In the preceding paper, “General Relativity or Newtonian Tidal Effects?”, the Hyperbolic Creation Model HCM with its transit super-speed light was suggested as a possibility. In this paper, explanations will be offered as to how this super-speed light is possible within the framework of the measured background red-shift frequencies and the well-known Doppler effect. Since this assumed transit super-speed light always arrives at 186,000 miles per second in the solar system there should be no conflict with fundamental physics laws. However, many questions regarding transit super-speed light arise, such as:
Explanations are presented for these and other questions. These explanations are in accordance with Euclidean space and time, having demonstrated this possibility in the prior paper.[4]. TOP OF PAGE
The HCM affirmatively answers the first two questions in the Introduction with a negative answer to the third question. In other words, the HCM involves decaying super-speed light with decreasing speeds at both the source and during its passage from the source to the solar system, yet always arriving in the solar system at the nominal 186,000 miles per second. The initial source speed of light is assumed to be infinite at creation for all celestial sources. Further, the average transit super-speed light increment above nominal is equal to its source distance from the solar system divided by the time since creation. It will be shown that the HCM not only satisfies observable data but is consistent with universe ages ranging from zero to 20 billion years or more. The basic HCM equation is defined in the Appendix with other equations and implications derived from this starting point. TOP OF PAGE
Troitskii The author was encouraged to develop the HCM cosmogony partly as a result of the work of both Troitskii[1] and Setterfield[2]. Troitskii's model is described in the first part of his abstract, "A cosmological model is discussed which is based on interpretation of the red shift by decrease of the light speed with time everywhere in the Universe beginning with a certain moment of time in the past...It is shown that this metric leads to the same observed facts and formulas of different characteristics that the metric of standard cosmology does but with essentially different physical interpretation."[1]p.389. Troitskii says about his model, "The basic difference between the considered static cosmological model and the standard one is in the absence of the singularity of the Universe dimension and the matter density at the initial moment of time."[1]p.389. Troitskii's wording implies that he was concerned about the reality of the big bang with all matter being compressed into a point so small that it can only be defined mathematically. The speed of light at the initial moment of time is suggested as 10 billion times the nominal value.[1]p.408. Setterfield The work of Norman and Setterfield[2] may be noted from their abstract, "A systematic, non-linear decay trend is revealed by 163 measurements of c in dynamical time by 16 methods over 300 years...A decay in c also manifests as a red-shift of light from distant galaxies."[2]p.3. They have explained dynamical time as, "A dynamical second is defined as 1/31,556,925.9747 of the earth's orbital period and was standard until 1967." Their plot[2], Figure 11, p.23, indicates that the linear decay of light speed for the years 1740 to 1940 was 2.65 miles per second per year. The plot also indicates that about the year 1915 the light decay seems to rather abruptly cease, becoming constant at its present measured value. The speed of light follows an exponential curve with a suggested starting speed of about 11 million times the nominal value. Roemer The World Book Encyclopedia[3] indicates that in the year 1675 Roemer calculated a speed of light of about 192,000 miles per second, compared to the present value of about 186,000 miles per second. The Roemer method involves timing the orbital eclipses of Io, Jupiter's closest major satellite. This method should be quite accurate, as Norman and Setterfield have indicated. They have suggested an adjustment of Roemer's 1675 value to be about 187,500 miles per second, rather than the 192,000 miles per second noted above. This adjustment was made to account for a more accurate earth orbital radius than Roemer used. The correction puts Roemer's value within about 0.8 per cent of today's nominal speed of light. TOP OF PAGE
DOES SUPER-SPEED LIGHT DECAY IN TRANSIT? Using Troitskii's initial light speed of 10 billion times the nominal speed of light throughout the universe[1], two examples may be compared: 1)With a galaxy that is 10 billion light-years distant, it would take one year for the source light to arrive in the solar system. This arriving light would have a speed of 10 billion times nominal, if the light speed did not decay during its transit from the source to the solar system. 2)Similarly, for a galaxy that is 5 billion light-years distant it would take six months for the source light to arrive in the solar system. But one year from the initial moment the light speed arriving in the solar system from this source would be less than 10 billion times nominal, since the source light speed had decreased. The comparison indicates that if light speed does not decay in transit then light arriving in the solar system would have different speeds, depending upon its source distance from the solar system. But Bradley's aberration method indicates that light arrives at the same nominal speed regardless of its source distance. This contradiction may be resolved if both source and transit light speed decay at the same rate. This is generally true for the HCM. TOP OF PAGE
ARE DISTANT STARS VISIBLE FOR ANY UNIVERSE AGE? The first example given above would indicate that the universe has to be at least one year old for a galaxy at 10 billion light-years distance to be seen. For Setterfield's initial light speed of 11 million times nominal, the universe age would have to be at least 900 years old to see this same galaxy. The age might be even 10,000 years, depending on how rapidly the light speed would have decayed during transit from the source to the solar system. In other words, the galaxy would be hidden for about 10,000 years and then suddenly appear. There would be no delay in the coming out of stars if the light speed was infinite at creation. With a momentary infinite initial light speed declining to nominal speed in just a flash, distant stars would always be visible, but would appear in their pristine form with little change even after thousands of years. With a young universe, Supernova 1987 (170,000 light-years distant) would appear only in its pristine form before it exploded in 1987. Therefore, a cosmology that will allow observations of all celestial bodies with their changes in time is necessary. The HCM accomplishes this objective. TOP OF PAGE
HAS LIGHT SPEED CHANGED IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM? Setterfield[2] has an impressive collection of light speed measurements indicating that the speed has decreased in the solar system. However, there are problems with the credibility of this data. For example, what clock did Roemer use to measure the changing times of the eclipses of Io several months apart? An error of just eight seconds would explain the 0.8 per cent discrepancy noted above. The author has made over 500 observations of each of the four Galilean satellites of Jupiter over a span of five years. He has seen Roemer's Io go into Jupiter's shadow several times and even when one is expecting it to happen the observation could be in error a few seconds. Based on his observations he has calculated that Io's period was 0.01336 days per orbit less in the year 1675 than its present value. If Roemer used this 0.8 per cent faster orbital rate as his clock then this might explain the discrepancy of 0.8 per cent faster light speed. Setterfield would agree that Roemer's method is probably the least accurate of all the light measurements. It is only with recent more accurate means of measurement that differences in light speed of about 0.01 per cent can be detected. This is in the noise level of data. How can one take these small changes and have confidence in even a linear slope change? Using this data[2] to establish a non-linear curve extrapolating many years backward in time is stretching credibility. It may be concluded that the data[2] confirms that light speed has not changed in the solar system, rather than confirming that it has changed. The HCM assumes no change in the nominal speed of light in the solar system from the moment of creation.
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF SUPER-SPEED LIGHT? Stretched-Out Constant Frequency Light Light travels through water at about three-fourths of its speed in air but colors do not change when seen in water. A person in a blue swim suit observed sitting in a chair will appear to have a blue swim suit when seen under water. The illustration is also true for a red swim suit; that is, no change in color. This illustration suggests that light frequencies corresponding to colors are independent of light speed. Light speed is equal to frequency-times-wave-length so that for a given frequency (color) light speed and wave length are proportional. Therefore, in water the wave length of light would also be three-fourths of its length in air. Similarly, super-speed light may then be expected to be stretched-out at constant frequency, having generally the same frequency as its source, except for changes as it travels great distances through space. These frequency changes in transit explain the background red-shift. Transit Super-Speed Light Energy With light photons having a fixed mass one would expect that the energy of transit super-speed light would be proportional to the square of its speed, decaying with time. However, amplitude oscillation energy may increase as the super-light speed decreases, maintaining total photon energy constant. This amplitude oscillation could be transverse and/or perpendicular to the light ray. As super-light radiates from a given source there would be more and more space available for these amplitudes to increase until the limit speed of 186,000 miles per second is reached. In the water illustration above the light photon energy is probably constant either in water or in the air. The Red-Shift and the HCM Cosmogony The well-known background red-shift frequencies decrease (toward the red) in proportion to the distance of a galaxy from the solar system. In the standard cosmology this frequency change is attributed to the Doppler Effect of an expanding universe. This heliocentric linear change is defined as the Hubble constant. With the HCM the universe is assumed to be Euclidean; that is, it is not expanding. The average super-speed light speed increment is also linear with the distance of a light source from the solar system. The cause of the background red-shift frequencies may then be attributed to a decaying super-speed of light. One might say that the greater the initial stretch of the wave length the greater is the tendency to retain part of this stretch upon arrival in the solar system at 186,000 miles per second. The resulting background frequency change is an identification of the source distance from where the light originated. The Doppler Effect and the HCM Cosmogony The well-known Doppler Effect occurs when a light source has perturbations of moving toward or away from the observer. The frequency shifts toward the blue (higher frequency) when the source is coming closer and toward the red (lower frequency) when moving away. One might think that with very high speed transit light small velocity changes would not be detected. However, Newtonian time dilation amplifies these velocity changes so that they are very large on site. (See Newtonian Time Dilation in the Appendix). Therefore, an observer who assumes that light speed is constant at 186,000 miles per second throughout the universe would get the expected Doppler Effect based on this assumption. But with the HCM the actual velocity rates on site would be larger than what he measures. TOP OF PAGE
WHAT
DOES HCM LIGHT LOOK LIKE A remote viewer (if there is even one) would see the same frequency (color) as the light source, except for frequency changes in transit which would produce a different red-shift than that observed on earth. This remote viewer could also measure varying speeds of light, which depend on the HCM heliocentric source. This is implausible for anyone who is convinced that the red-shift cannot be explained with a Euclidean universe but that it has to be explained using general relativity and the Big Bang. There is an even greater problem for anyone who is convinced that there is life similar to ours outside the solar system. They would be forced to ask, "How did this constant-frequency stretched-out light get there in the first place? Why is it heliocentric? People used to think that the sun orbited the earth. Isn't this the same problem?" It should be noted that these questions arise regarding the HCM only if the universe age is assumed to be just a few thousand years old. Using the HCM with a universe age of 20 billion years or more, the speed of light is essentially 186,000 miles per second everywhere in the universe. However, an old Euclidean universe would collapse upon itself. But for a young universe how far could it collapse in just a few thousand years? Not very far. One has to make choices with this dilemma. TOP OF PAGE
WHY IS SUPER-SPEED LIGHT HELIOCENTRIC? At this point one has to proceed on faith in the Bible as God's revelation. The answer to this question is that it is by design of the Creator. There are at least 11 Biblical references which state that God stretched out the heavens: (Job 9:8; 37:18, Psalms 104.2, Isaiah 40:22; 42:5; 44;24; 45:12; 48:13; 51:13, Jeremiah 10:12, Zechariah 12:1). With eight of these verses the creation of the earth is mentioned in conjunction with stretching out the heavens. In six of the references the creation of man is included with the earth and heavens. One cannot miss the point that man is very special to God, having been created in God's image. A literal interpretation of the Bible indicates that the entire universe is about 6000 years old, even in agreement with the Hebrew calendar. According to the Bible the celestial bodies came into existence by a spoken word of God (Hebrews 11:3). The light from the celestial bodies (including the stars), shined on the earth so that Adam and Eve could see them (Genesis 1:15,17). Abraham, 2000 years later, was invited by God to look toward heaven and count the stars to see if he was able to number them (Genesis 15:5). From a Biblical perspective the earth is the spiritual center of the universe, if not the physical center. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that the Creator could have made super-speed light heliocentric, with this evidence confirmed by the heliocentric red-shift. Even science suggests that one of cosmology's five basic postulates is the "anthropic principle". Everything is custom designed (or evolved) for man's benefit. TOP OF PAGE
The explanations offered in this paper for the HCM cosmogony are somewhat arbitrary, but it should be noted once again that there is no observational disproof showing that the model is not valid. Creationists striving to develop a universe cosmology consistent with the Biblical record have different ideas, (sometimes controversial), as is evidenced by several letters to the editors of the Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal[7]. Finally, for anyone desiring to check the HCM equations a step-by-step derivation is offered in the Appendix below. TOP OF PAGE
APPENDIX — HYPERBOLIC CREATION MODEL EQUATIONS
D is the light source distance from the sun for a specified celestial body expressed as light-years. This is a heliocentric reference system with all distances referred to the sun. The generally accepted distance measurements are assumed to be valid. One light-year is the distance light would travel in one year at a speed of 186,000 miles per second. With 86,400 seconds in a day and 365.25 days per year, one light-year is a distance of 5.87D+12 miles. The decimal point is twelve places to the right, which is about 6 trillion miles for one light-year. T is the age of the universe expressed as years. All celestial bodies are assumed to have come into existance simultaneously with T equal to zero. All celestial bodies were located essentially where we see them today, except for changes due to initial motions established at time zero. One year is the time for the earth to complete one orbit around the sun. dC is the average incremental light speed above nominal as the transit light travels from its source to the solar system and is expressed as light-years per year. Nominal light speed is one light-year per year which is the same as 186,000 miles per second. The arrival increment in the solar system is assumed to have always been zero in agreement with present light speed measurements. However, the light source increment is not specified, which might be about three times the average increment dC. When the universe age is zero the increment dC is infinite for all celestial bodies, as may be noted from the equation when T equals zero. For an infinite universe age the increment dC is zero with the speed of light everywhere in the universe being the nominal 186,000 miles per second. For D greater than zero the curve described by the equation is a hyperbola, with dC approaching infinity as T approaches zero and dC approaching zero as T approaches infinity. Hence the name Hyperbolic Creation Model, HCM. For a specified universe age that is greater than zero the increment dC is proportional to D. For example, a celestial body that is twice as distant as another celestial body will have twice the average incremental light speed. One might ask, "Is the gain for D/T exactly one...could it be 0.5 or 1.5 times D/T?" It will be shown later that this gain has to be exactly one to avoid shifting the infinite distance asymptote from zero as the ratio of apparent time divided by the universe age approaches zero (see equation 5). TOP OF PAGE
HCM AVERAGE TRANSIT SPEED OF LIGHT
dC is the average incremental light speed above nominal as the transit light travels from its source to the solar system with units light-years per year (see equation 1). 1 is the nominal speed of light and is one light-year per year. C is the average transit speed light-years per year as the light travels from its source to the solar system. It is the sum of nominal plus average incremental light speed. TOP OF PAGE
T once again
is the actual universe age with units years D is the light source distance with units light-years (see equation 1). C is the average transit speed of light with units light-years per year (see equation 2). Tapp is the apparent age of the observed light with units years. Dividing the distance by the average speed, D/C, determines how many years it takes for the light to travel from its source to the solar system. Subtracting this travel time from the actual universe age yields the time in years when the light was emitted from the source. This is defined as the apparent age of the light. In other words, one would see a snapshot of how the light source appeared D/C years ago. However, if one were viewing it on site with a video camera D/C years ago, then motions would be faster than observed from the solar system. This is a Newtonian time dilation effect which will be discussed later (see equation 6). TOP OF PAGE
EXPLICIT
EQUATION FOR THE
T once again
is the actual universe age with units years D is the light source distance with units light-years (see equation 1). *T has the exact same magnitude as T but has been multiplied by the nominal light speed of one light-year per year, so that the units for *T are light-years. Tapp once again is the apparent age of the observed light with units years (see equation 3). Equation 4 was derived by combining the first three equations into one equation as follows:
Having demonstrated that there is no inconsistency in the units equation 4 may be written without the asterisk on T:
RATIO OF APPARENT AGE DIVIDED BY ACTUAL AGE
T once again is the actual universe age with units years or light-years (see equation 4). D is the light source distance with units light-years (see equation 1). Trat is the ratio of the apparent age divided by the actual age years/years. Equation 5 was derived by dividing equation 4 by T. It may be noted that as the distance D approaches infinity the time ratio Trat appoaches zero for any universe age T. What this means is that the more distant an observed celestial body is from the solar system the nearer to the time of creation it will appear. This is expressed by equation 5. In the discussion of the basic HCM (see equation 1) it was noted that any other gain than one would put a bias on the time ratio as D approaches infinity. As this is crucial regarding the importance of a gain of one on the basic HCM equation, the time ratio Trat will be derived with a gain of K to demonstrate this fact:
It may be noted that if K = 1 then this last equation reduces to T/(T+D), which is the same as equation 5 derived earlier. However, if K has any value other than one, then when D approaches infinity we will have infinity divided by infinity in equation 5, which makes Trat indeterminate for any universe age T. Calculations were made for K = 0.9 and K = 1.1 and D was increased until Trat was essentially constant. The asymptotic values of Trat were respectively minus 0.111 and plus 0.091. The results were the same for a universe age of either 100,000 years or 6,000 years. It may be concluded that these Trat biases from zero render unrealistic any other gain K than one. TOP OF PAGE
T once again is the actual universe age with units years or light-years (see equation 4). D is the light source distance with units light-years (see equation 1). Tdil is the ratio of earth time divided by on site time dT/dTapp with units years/years. It may be noted that if D equals zero and T is greater than zero then the time dilation is one, with earth time and on site time equal. When T equals zero then Tdil is infinite for any distance D; that is, time is standing still on site when the source is viewed from the earth. If the source could be viewed on site at T equals zero then changes would be happening at an infinite rate. When T approaches infinity then the time dilation approaches one for any source distance. There would be no time dilation effect because the speed of light would be 186,000 miles per second everywhere in the universe. This is in agreement with the standard cosmology for a universe age of 15 to 20 billion years where Tdil would be close to one, except for the most distant galaxies. Examples will be given that will help clarify this time dilation effect which is due entirely to a changing transit speed of light and is not a relativistic effect. Equation 6 was derived by differention of equation 4 as follows:
EXAMPLES OF NEWTONIAN TIME DILATION Supernova 1987A Supernova 1987A is located in the Large Magellanic Cloud near the Tarantula Nebula with a distance of 170,000 light-years[5]. A luminosity curve is shown covering a span of 180 days. For a universe age of 15 billion years Tdil is one, with earth time the same as on site time. With a universe age of 6000 years Tdil equals 14.921, which means that the span of 180 days would actually be only 12 days on site (180/14.921). Once again, this is due to a decaying transit speed of light and not a relativistic effect due to clocks running at different rates on earth and at the source. Galaxy at 12 billion light-years For a universe age of 15 billion years Tdil is 1.246, which means that the rate of rotation of the galaxy would be 24.6 per cent faster than measured on earth. For a universe age of 6000 years Tdil is 1,000,000.75, which means the rate of rotation of the galaxy would be a million times faster than measured on earth. PSR1913+16 This pulsar is at a distance of 15,000 light-years and has a measured orbital period of 0.322917 days per orbit[6]. The beep rate coming from the pulsar is 16.94 beeps per second. With a universe age of 15 billion years Tdil is one, so that the measured period and beep rate are the same on site. With a universe age of 6000 years Tdil is 2.042, with the on site orbital period being 0.157802 days per orbit (0.322917/2.042) which is a faster orbital rate. The beep rate on site would be 34.67 beeps per second, (16.94 x 2.042). This results in an orbit on site which has a mean radius of about half that computed based on the assumption that transit light speed does not decay in the universe. TOP OF PAGE
PRESENT-REALITY OF THE LIGHT SOURCE We can only see past-reality today for celestial bodies because of the time required for light to travel from the source to the earth. To see present-reality we must view it in the future. With the standard cosmology we can say that a star 100,000 light-years distant may be seen as it is today 100,000 years from now, since light speed is assumed to be constant at one light-year per year throughout the universe. The HCM has a decaying speed of light and would require use of the following equation to calculate the future universe age to see present-reality. Equation 7 was derived from equation 4:
T once again is the actual universe age with units years or light-years (see equation 4). D is the light source distance with units light-years (see equation 1). Tfut is the future universe age with units years when the light source can be seen in its present-reality. Using equation 7 for a universe age T=15 billion years and distance D=170,000 light-years, Tfut calculates to be 15.000169998 billion years. This is 169,998 years into the future, close to D=170,000 light years. For comparison, with a universe age T=6000 years and the same distance D=170,000 light-years,Tfut now calculates to be 35,078 years. This is 29,078 years into the future, (35,078 - 6,000). The comparison indicates that equation 7 is valid for either a young or old universe. TOP OF PAGE
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